Ubiquitous;
cosmopolitan.
Approx. 40-50 species.
Soil, dead organic debris, on food stuffs and textiles. Plant pathogen, most commonly on weakened plants.
Dry spore.
Wind.
Commonly recognized. Type I allergies (hay fever, asthma). Type III hypersensitivity pneumonitis: Woodworker’s lung, Apple store hypersensitivity. May cross react with Ulocladium, Stemphylium, Phoma, others.
Nasal lesions, subcutaneous lesions, nail infections; the majority of infections reported from persons with underlying disease or in those taking immunosuppressive drugs. Most species of Alternaria do not grow at 37°C.
A. alternata produces the antifungal alternariol. Other metabolites include AME (alternariol monomethylether), tenuazonic acid, and altertoxins (mutagenic).
On a variety of substrates.
Aw=0.85-0.88 (minimum for various species)
Biocontrol of weeds and other plants.
One of the most common fungi worldwide.
Ubiquitous;
cosmopolitan.
Approx. 200 species.
Soil, decaying plant debris, compost piles, stored grain.
Dry spore.
Wind.
Common. Type I allergies (hay fever, asthma). Type III hypersensitivity pneumonitis: Humidifier lung, Malt worker’s lung, Compost lung, Wood trimmer’s disease, Straw hypersensitivity, Farmer’s lung, Oat grain hypersensitivity, others.
Other: A. fumigatus: allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA), allergic fungal sinusitis.
Respiratory, invasive, cutaneous, ear, and corneal disease. Severe, invasive disease is usually associated with immunosuppressed hosts. Many species grow at 37°C (body temperature).
A. fumigatus: fungus ball and invasive disease.
A. flavus: nasal sinus lesions, invasive disease.
A. niger: “Swimmer’s ear,” and invasive disease.
Partial list:
A. flavus: aflatoxin B1 & B2, cyclopiazonic acid, kojic acid
A. fumigatus: ergot alkaloids, fumigaclavines, gliotoxin, fumigatoxin, fumigillin, fumitremorgens, helvolic acid, tryptoquivaline tremorgens, verruculogen.
A. niger: malformin C, oxalic acid.
A. ustus: austocystins.
A. versicolor: aspercolorin, averufin, cyclopiazonic acid, sterigmatocystin, versicolorin.
On a wide range of substrates. Water requirements range widely (dependent on species).
Aw=0.71-0.94 (minimum for various species).
Many, including practical applications in food production. For example, A. oryzae is used to ferment soybeans to soy sauce. A. terreus produces mevinolin which is able to reduce blood cholesterol; A. niger is used in the bread and beer making industries (enzyme production) and also is able to decompose plastic. A. niger and A. ochraceus are used in cortisone production.
Aspergillus is one of the most common fungal genera, worldwide, and Aspergillus fumigatus is one of the most common species found
Ubiquitous;
cosmopolitan.
Approx. 81 species.
Soil, seeds, cellulose substrates, dung, woody and straw materials.
Spores are formed inside fruiting bodies. Spores are forced out an opening and spread by wind, insects, water splash.
Not well studied.
Type I allergies (hay fever, asthma).
Uncommon agent of onychomycosis (nail infection).
Chaetomin. Chaetomium globosum produces chaetoglobosins. Sterigmatocystin is produced by rare species. Other compounds produced (which may not be mycotoxins in the strict sense) include a variety of mutagens.
Widespread, cellulolytic, very commonly found on damp sheetrock paper.
Used in textile testing and the production of cellulase.
None.
Ubiquitous;
cosmopolitan.
Approx. 28-40 species. One of the most common genera, worldwide.
Soil of many different types, plant litter, plant pathogen, leaf surfaces, old or decayed plants.
Dry spore (formed in very fragile chains, easily dispersed).
Wind.
Common and important allergen.
Type I allergies (hay fever, asthma).
Type III hypersensitivity pneumonitis: Hot tub lung, Moldy wall hypersensitivity.
Generally, non-pathogenic. One species, Cladosporium carrionii, is an agent of chromoblastomycosis in subtropical and tropical regions (grows at 35-37°C).
Cladosporin, emodin.
(Neither are highly toxic.)
Widespread, on many substrates, including textiles, wood, moist window sills. Grows at 0°C, and so is associated with refrigerated foods.
Aw=0.85-0.88 (minimum for various species).
C. herbarum produces enzymes which are used in the transformation of steroid intermediates such as pregnenolone and progesterone, biologically important hormones used in the industrial production of oral contraceptives.
G.S. deHoog & J. Guarro have placed species associated with human infection in a new genus Cladophialophora, i.e. Cladophialophora carrionii, C. bantiana. Older medical texts refer to this fungus by its former name Hormodendron species.
Ubiquitous;
cosmopolitan.
Approx. 50-70 species.
Soil, saprophytic or parasitic on plants. Many species are important plant pathogens.
Wet spore.
Insects, water splash, and wind when dried out.
Type I allergies (hay fever, asthma).
Causes keratitis, endophthalmitis, onychomycosis, mycetoma, and disseminated infection in immunocompromised patients; infections in burn victims, and systemic opportunistic infections in severely disabled hosts.
Trichothecenes (type B); T-2 toxin; zearalenone (F-2 toxin), vomitoxin, deoxynivalenol, and fumonisin. Zearalenone is not acutely toxic, and actually may have positive effects with controlled ingestion.
Occasionally found on a variety of substrates. Fusarium requires very wet conditions.
Aw=0.86-0.91 (minimum for various species).
Zearalenone has been patented as a growth stimulant in animals and has application as an oral contraceptive, and as an anabolic steroid (<1ppm). F. graminearum is used for the production of quorn, a mycoprotein.
None.
Ubiquitous;
cosmopolitan.
Approx. 200 species.
Soil, decaying plant debris, compost piles, fruit rot. P. glabrum has been isolated from diesel fuel.
Dry spore.
Wind, insects (fungus serves as a food source for storage mites).
Common.
Type I allergies (hay fever, asthma).
Type III hypersensitivity pneumonitis: Cheese washer’s lung, Woodman’s lung, Moldy wall hypersensitivity.
One species of Penicillium species, P. marneffei, is a cause of human infection. It has not yet been found in the United States.
Various toxins by different species: penicillic acid, peptide nephrotoxin, viomellein, xanthomegin, xanthocillin X, mycophenolic acid, roquefortine C & D, citrinin, penicillin, cyclopiazonic acid, isofumigaclavine A, penitrem A, decumbin, patulin citreoviridin, griseofulvin, verruculogen, ochratoxin, chrysogine, and meleagrin.
Widespread. Commonly found in house dust. Grows in water damaged buildings on wallpaper, wallpaper glue, decaying fabrics, moist chipboards, and behind paint. Also found in blue rot of apples, dried foodstuffs, cheeses, fresh herbs, spices, dry cereals, nuts, onions, and oranges.
Aw=0.78-0.86 (minimum for various species).
Roquefort and camembert cheese, salami-sausages starter culture; anti-bacterial antimicrobial penicillin, and anti-fungal antimicrobial griseofulvin.
Penicillium is one of the most common fungal genera, worldwide.
Microbial volatile organic compounds (MVOCs) produced: Penicillium commune produces 2-methyl-isoborneol, a heavy musty odor.
Ubiquitous;
cosmopolitan.
Approx. 15 species.
Soil, decaying plant substrates, decomposing cellulose (hay, straw), leaf litter, and seeds. Growth not influenced by soil pH or copper; growth enhanced by manure.
Wet spore.
Insects, water splash.
Wind when dried out.
Not well studied.
Type I allergies reported.
No reports of human infection. (No species grow well at 37°C.)
Macrocyclic trichothecenes: verrucarin J, roridin E, satratoxin F, G & H, sporidesmin G, trichoverrol; cyclosporins, stachybotryolactone.
Stachybotrys mycotoxicosis: human toxicosis has been described; may be characterized by dermatitis, cough, rhinitis, itching or burning sensation in mouth, throat, nasal passages and eyes. The best described toxicoses are from domestic animals that have eaten contaminated hay and straw or inhaled infected material from contaminated bedding.
Commonly found indoors on wet materials containing cellulose, such as wallboard, jute, wicker, straw baskets, and other paper materials. (See “Characteristics: Growth/Culture”).
Aw=0.94
Not known.
Many human reports of Stachybotrys toxicosis are anecdotal. Stachybotrys mycotoxicosis is currently the subject of toxin research.
Ubiquitous.
More than 3,000 genera.
Saprophytes and plant pathogens. Found everywhere in nature.
Spores are predominantly forcibly discharged during periods of high humidity or rain.
Highly variable, dependent on genus and species. Poorly studied.
Dependent on genus and species, but the vast majority do not cause disease.
Very many, dependent on genus and species.
The cellulolytic ascomycetes Chaetomium and Ascotricha are frequently found growing indoors on damp substrates.
Dependent on genus and species.
Some of the common asexual fungi such as Penicillium and Aspergillus produce sexual forms under certain conditions; these are classified in the ascomycete group and given distinct names. For example, the most common sexual forms of Penicillium are Talaromyces and Eupenicillium; the most common sexual forms of Aspergillus are Eurotium and Emericella.
Ubiquitous;
cosmopolitan.
Approx. 15 species.
Soil, forest soils, fresh water, aerial portion of plants, fruit, marine estuary sediments, wood.
Wet spore.
Wind (when dried out), water droplet.
Common.
Type I allergies (hay fever, asthma).
Type III hypersensitivity pneumonitis: Humidifier fever, Sauna taker’s lung.
Rare reports of isolates from skin lesions, keratitis, spleen abscess in a lymphoma patient, blood isolate from a leukemic patient.
Not known.
Widespread, where moisture accumulates, especially bathrooms and kitchens, on shower curtains, tile grout, window sills, textiles, liquid waste materials.
Used in the removal of unwanted components of raw textile materials. Aureobasidium pullulans produces pullulan (a biodegradable polysaccharide) used for packaging of food and drugs. It is processed into fibers which have a shiny gloss like rayon and have the strength of nylon.
Aureobasidium pullulans represents a morphologically heterogenous group of taxonomically related fungi. Very closely related to Hormonema. Older medical texts refer to this fungus by its former name Pullularia pullulans.
Ubiquitous;
cosmopolitan.
Approx. 1,200 genera.
Saprophytes and plant pathogens.
Gardens, forests, woodlands.
Wind; spore release (active mechanism) during periods of high humidity or rain.
Probably common.
Type I allergies (hay fever, asthma).
Type III hypersensitivity pneumonitis: Lycoperdonosis (puffball spores), Mushroom culture hypersensitivity.
Asexual forms may cause rare opportunistic infections.
The yeast Cryptococcus neoformans is a basidiomycete.
Mushroom toxicosis (poisoning) is usually a result of ingestion of the following toxins: amanitins, monomethyl-hydrazine, muscarine, ibotenic acid, psilocybin.
Serpula lacrimans, the agent of “dry rot,” and other fungi causing white and brown wood rot, grow and destroy the structural wood of buildings. Poria incrassata causes a particularly destructive dry rot in buildings.
Many mushrooms are edible, and very important in the food industries.
Occasionally, a benign, non-wood rotting mushroom will fruit inside a building, growing in some unique ecological niche if enough moisture is present.
If mushrooms are found growing indoors we ask clients to submit the entire mushroom for identification.
Ubiquitous;
cosmopolitan.
More commonly found in tropical, subtropical regions.
Approx. 30 species.
Plant debris, soil, facultative plant pathogens of tropical or subtropical plants.
Dry spore.
Wind.
Common.
Type I allergies (hay fever, asthma).
Other: A relatively common cause of allergic fungal sinusitis.
Occasionally a cause of onychomycosis, ocular keratitis, sinusitis, mycetoma, pneumonia, endocarditis, cerebral abscess, and disseminated infection. Most cases are from immunocompromised patients.
Not known.
Yes, on a variety of substrates.
Not known.
None.
Ubiquitous;
cosmopolitan.
Two species.
Plant debris, soil. Secondary invader of damaged plant tissue.
Dry spore.
Wind.
Spores also released by hygroscopic movement.
Common.
Type I allergies (hay fever, asthma).
No cases of infection have been reported in humans or animals.
Antibiotic substances produced: flavipin, epicorazine A & B, indole-3-acetonitrile.
Yes, on many different substrates including paper, textiles, and insects.
Aw=0.86-0.90 (minimum).
None known.
None.
Cosmopolitan.
Approx. 5 species.
Plant litter, soil, many types of plants and trees.
Dry spore.
Wind.
Not studied.
Not known.
Trichothecenes (trichodermol and trichodermin) and griseofulvins. Trichothecene toxicity is due to the ability to bind ribosomal protein. Griseofulvin has been made commercially available as an anti-dermatophyte drug.
Yes, on a variety of substrates.
Cellulolytic.
Not known.
Very closely related to Stachybotrys.
M. echinata produces acetic acid.
Ubiquitous;
cosmopolitan.
Approx. 45 genera.
Decaying logs, stumps and dead leaves, particularly in forested regions.
These organisms have both dry and wet spores.
Wind disperses the dry fruiting body spores, whereas the wet amoebic phase is motile.
Type I allergies (hay fever, asthma).
(Lycogala used in one skin test survey.)
No reports of human infection.
None.
Occasionally found indoors.
None known.
The myxomycetes have an interesting life cycle which includes a wet spore phase and a dry spore phase. When conditions are favorable, they move about like amoebae, resembling primitive animals. When conditons are not favorable they form a resting body (sclerotium) with dry, airborne spores. The myxomycetes are not considered to be true fungi.
Ubiquitous;
cosmopolitan.
Especially abundant in warm climates.
Approx. 4-5 species.
Decaying plant material and soil.
Active discharge mechanism. Does not require wind or rain.
Type I allergies (hay fever, asthma).
Very rare report of human infection.
Not known.
Rarely found growing indoors.
None known.
None.
Ubiquitous;
cosmopolitan.
Approx. 20 species.
Soil, blackened and dead herbaceous stems and leaf spots, grasses, rushes and sedges. Almost always associated with other fungi.
Dry spore.
Wind.
Not studied.
Rare case of mycotic keratitis reported.
Not known.
Rarely found growing indoors.
None known.
None.
Ubiquitous;
cosmopolitan.
Approx. 15 species.
Common on dead leaves of more than 50 different plants, especially leaf fodders. Soil, grasses.
Dry spore.
Wind.
Not studied.
No reports of infections.
Sporidesmin.
Rarely found growing indoors.
Can grow on paper.
None known.
Pithomyces chartarum is one of the causes of facial eczema in sheep in New Zealand.
Ubiquitous;
cosmopolitan.
Approx. 10 species.
Soil, herbaceous substrates and decaying wood.
Dry spore.
Wind.
Not studied.
Three cases of subcutaneous infection have been reported.
Not known.
Occasionally found on a variety of substrates. One species is called the cellar fungus, most commonly found on brickwork and adjacent timber in wine cellars.
None known.
None.
Ubiquitous;
cosmopolitan.
Approx. 14 families, 105 genera and 5,000 species.
Grasses, flowers, trees and other living plant materials.
Rusts have both wet and dry spores. Wind disperses the urediospores, teliospores, basidiospores, and aeciospores. The basidiospores and aeciospores have an active spore release mechanism.
Type I allergies (hay fever, asthma).
No reports of human infection.
Not known.
Rusts do not grow indoors unless their host plants are present. They are parasitic plant pathogens and need a living host for growth.
Not known.
Rusts are members of the Basidiomycetes class. They have a complex life cycle, producing five different spore types in two different plant hosts. Spore types include: basidiospores, pycniospores, aeciospores, urediospores, and teliospores.
Ubiquitous;
cosmopolitan.
Two families, 50 genera, and 950 species.
On cereal crops, grasses, weeds, other fungi, and on other flowering plants.
Wind disperses the powdery brown teliospores of smut.
Type I allergies (hay fever, asthma).
No reports of human infection by the plant parasitic forms.
Not known.
Smuts do not usually grow indoors. They are parasitic plant pathogens that require a living host for the completion of their life cycle.
Not known.
Smuts are members of the Basidiomycetes and have two spore types: teliospores (dry, powdery stage) and basidiospores (yeast stage).
Ubiquitous;
cosmopolitan.
Approx. 15 species.
Soil, decaying plant substrates, decomposing cellulose (hay, straw), leaf litter, and seeds. Growth not influenced by soil pH or copper; growth enhanced by manure.
Wet spore.
Insects, water splash.
Wind when dried out.
Not well studied.
Type I allergies reported.
No reports of human infection. (No species grow well at 37°C.)
Macrocyclic trichothecenes: verrucarin J, roridin E, satratoxin F, G & H, sporidesmin G, trichoverrol; cyclosporins, stachybotryolactone.
Stachybotrys mycotoxicosis: human toxicosis has been described; may be characterized by dermatitis, cough, rhinitis, itching or burning sensation in mouth, throat, nasal passages and eyes. The best described toxicoses are from domestic animals that have eaten contaminated hay and straw or inhaled infected material from contaminated bedding.
Commonly found indoors on wet materials containing cellulose, such as wallboard, jute, wicker, straw baskets, and other paper materials. (See “Characteristics: Growth/Culture”).
Aw=0.94
Not known.
Many human reports of Stachybotrys toxicosis are anecdotal. Stachybotrys mycotoxicosis is currently the subject of toxin research.
Ubiquitous;
cosmopolitan.
Approx. 20 species.
Found in northern alpine to tropical areas.
Soil, decaying wood, grains, citrus fruit, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, paper, textiles, damp wood.
Wet spore.
Rain, insects, water splash, and wind when dried out.
Type I allergies (hay fever, asthma).
Type III hypersensitivity pneumonitis.
Human infections include a pulmonary cavity, peritonitis in a dialysis patient, and a perihepatic infection in a liver transplant patient. Considered an emerging opportunist in immunocompromised persons.
Trichothecene and cyclic peptides; gliotoxin, isocyanides, T-2 toxin, trichodermin. Trichoderma may cause a mycotoxicosis similar to that caused by Stachybotrys chartarum; some of the metabolic substances produced are closely related to trichothecenes.
Found on paper, tapestry, wood, in kitchens on the outer surface of unglazed ceramics and on a variety of other substrates. Strongly cellulolytic.
Trichoderma harzianum pellets have been mixed with ground bark to protect trees and vegetable crops against infections from other plant pathogens. T. viride produces cellulase and hemicellulase used in commercial beer, wine and food processing. It enhances the aroma in tea and mushroom products.
T. harzianum has been reported to produce antifungal trichoriazines compounds.
Ubiquitous;
cosmopolitan.
Approx. 9 species.
Soil, dung, paint, grasses, fibers, wood, decaying plant material, paper, and textiles.
Dry spore.
Wind.
Major.
Type I allergies (hay fever, asthma).
Ulocladium cross-reacts with Alternaria, adding to the allergenic burden of Alternaria-sensitive patients.
Rare subcutaneous tissue infection.
Not known.
Widespread. Found on gypsum board, paper, paint, tapestries, jute, other straw materials. Ulocladium has a high water requirement.
Not known.
None.
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